Postgres is performing sequential scan instead of index scan

Question

I have a table with about 10 million rows in it and an index on a date field. When I try and extract the unique values of the indexed field Postgres runs a sequential scan even though the result set has only 26 items. Why is the optimiser picking this plan? And what can I do avoid it?

From other answers I suspect this is as much related to the query as to the index.

explain select "labelDate" from pages group by "labelDate";
                              QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
 HashAggregate  (cost=524616.78..524617.04 rows=26 width=4)
   Group Key: "labelDate"
   ->  Seq Scan on pages  (cost=0.00..499082.42 rows=10213742 width=4)
(3 rows)

Table structure:

http=# \d pages
                                       Table "public.pages"
     Column      |          Type          |        Modifiers
-----------------+------------------------+----------------------------------
 pageid          | integer                | not null default nextval('...
 createDate      | integer                | not null
 archive         | character varying(16)  | not null
 label           | character varying(32)  | not null
 wptid           | character varying(64)  | not null
 wptrun          | integer                | not null
 url             | text                   |
 urlShort        | character varying(255) |
 startedDateTime | integer                |
 renderStart     | integer                |
 onContentLoaded | integer                |
 onLoad          | integer                |
 PageSpeed       | integer                |
 rank            | integer                |
 reqTotal        | integer                | not null
 reqHTML         | integer                | not null
 reqJS           | integer                | not null
 reqCSS          | integer                | not null
 reqImg          | integer                | not null
 reqFlash        | integer                | not null
 reqJSON         | integer                | not null
 reqOther        | integer                | not null
 bytesTotal      | integer                | not null
 bytesHTML       | integer                | not null
 bytesJS         | integer                | not null
 bytesCSS        | integer                | not null
 bytesHTML       | integer                | not null
 bytesJS         | integer                | not null
 bytesCSS        | integer                | not null
 bytesImg        | integer                | not null
 bytesFlash      | integer                | not null
 bytesJSON       | integer                | not null
 bytesOther      | integer                | not null
 numDomains      | integer                | not null
 labelDate       | date                   |
 TTFB            | integer                |
 reqGIF          | smallint               | not null
 reqJPG          | smallint               | not null
 reqPNG          | smallint               | not null
 reqFont         | smallint               | not null
 bytesGIF        | integer                | not null
 bytesJPG        | integer                | not null
 bytesPNG        | integer                | not null
 bytesFont       | integer                | not null
 maxageMore      | smallint               | not null
 maxage365       | smallint               | not null
 maxage30        | smallint               | not null
 maxage1         | smallint               | not null
 maxage0         | smallint               | not null
 maxageNull      | smallint               | not null
 numDomElements  | integer                | not null
 numCompressed   | smallint               | not null
 numHTTPS        | smallint               | not null
 numGlibs        | smallint               | not null
 numErrors       | smallint               | not null
 numRedirects    | smallint               | not null
 maxDomainReqs   | smallint               | not null
 bytesHTMLDoc    | integer                | not null
 maxage365       | smallint               | not null
 maxage30        | smallint               | not null
 maxage1         | smallint               | not null
 maxage0         | smallint               | not null
 maxageNull      | smallint               | not null
 numDomElements  | integer                | not null
 numCompressed   | smallint               | not null
 numHTTPS        | smallint               | not null
 numGlibs        | smallint               | not null
 numErrors       | smallint               | not null
 numRedirects    | smallint               | not null
 maxDomainReqs   | smallint               | not null
 bytesHTMLDoc    | integer                | not null
 fullyLoaded     | integer                |
 cdn             | character varying(64)  |
 SpeedIndex      | integer                |
 visualComplete  | integer                |
 gzipTotal       | integer                | not null
 gzipSavings     | integer                | not null
 siteid          | numeric                |
Indexes:
    "pages_pkey" PRIMARY KEY, btree (pageid)
    "pages_date_url" UNIQUE CONSTRAINT, btree ("urlShort", "labelDate")
    "idx_pages_cdn" btree (cdn)
    "idx_pages_labeldate" btree ("labelDate") CLUSTER
    "idx_pages_urlshort" btree ("urlShort")
Triggers:
    pages_label_date BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE ON pages
      FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE PROCEDURE fix_label_date()

Answer 1

This is a known issue regarding Postgres optimization. If the distinct values are few - like in your case - and you are in 8.4+ version, a very fast workaround using a recursive query is described here: Loose Indexscan.

Your query could be rewritten (the LATERAL needs 9.3+ version):

WITH RECURSIVE pa AS 
( ( SELECT labelDate FROM pages ORDER BY labelDate LIMIT 1 ) 
  UNION ALL
    SELECT n.labelDate 
    FROM pa AS p
         , LATERAL 
              ( SELECT labelDate 
                FROM pages 
                WHERE labelDate > p.labelDate 
                ORDER BY labelDate 
                LIMIT 1
              ) AS n
) 
SELECT labelDate 
FROM pa ;

Erwin Brandstetter has a thorough explanation and several variations of the query in this answer (on a related but different issue): Optimize GROUP BY query to retrieve latest record per user

Answer 2

The best query very much depends on data distribution.

You have many rows per date, that's been established. Since your case burns down to only 26 values in the result, all of the following solutions will be blazingly fast as soon as the index is used.
(For more distinct values the case would get more interesting.)

There is no need to involve pageid at all (like you commented).

Index

All you need is a B-tree index on "labelDate".
With more than a few NULL values in the column, a partial index helps some more (and is smaller):

CREATE INDEX pages_labeldate_nonull_idx ON big ("labelDate")
WHERE  "labelDate" IS NOT NULL;

You later clarified:

0% NULL but only after fixing things up when importing.

The partial index may still make sense to rule out intermediary states of rows with NULL values. Would avoid needless updates to the index (with resulting bloat).

Query

Based on a provisional range

If your dates appear in a continuous range with not too many gaps, we can use the nature of the data type date to our advantage. There's only a finite, countable number of values between two given values. If gaps are few, this will be fastest:

SELECT d."labelDate"
FROM  (
   SELECT generate_series(min("labelDate")::timestamp
                        , max("labelDate")::timestamp
                        , interval '1 day')::date AS "labelDate"
   FROM   pages
   ) d
WHERE  EXISTS (SELECT FROM pages WHERE "labelDate" = d."labelDate");

Why the cast to timestamp in generate_series()? See:

• Generating time series between two dates in PostgreSQL

Min and max can be picked from the index cheaply. If you know the minimum and / or maximum possible date, it gets a bit cheaper, yet. Example:

SELECT d."labelDate"
FROM  (
   SELECT date '2011-01-01' + g AS "labelDate"
   FROM   generate_series(0, now()::date - date '2011-01-01' - 1) g
   ) d
WHERE  EXISTS (SELECT FROM pages WHERE "labelDate" = d."labelDate");

Or, for an immutable interval:

SELECT d."labelDate"
FROM  (
   SELECT date '2011-01-01' + g AS "labelDate"
   FROM   generate_series(0, 363) g) d
WHERE  EXISTS (SELECT FROM pages WHERE "labelDate" = d."labelDate");

Loose index scan

This performs very well with any distribution of dates (as long as we have many rows per date). Basically what @ypercube already provided. But there are some fine points and we need to make sure our favorite index can be used everywhere.

WITH RECURSIVE p AS (
   ( -- parentheses required for LIMIT
   SELECT "labelDate"
   FROM   pages
   WHERE  "labelDate" IS NOT NULL
   ORDER  BY "labelDate"
   LIMIT  1
   ) 
   UNION ALL
   SELECT (SELECT "labelDate" 
           FROM   pages 
           WHERE  "labelDate" > p."labelDate" 
           ORDER  BY "labelDate" 
           LIMIT  1)
   FROM   p
   WHERE  "labelDate" IS NOT NULL
   ) 
SELECT "labelDate" 
FROM   p
WHERE  "labelDate" IS NOT NULL;

The first CTE p is effectively the same as

SELECT min("labelDate") FROM pages

But the verbose form makes sure our partial index is used. Plus, this form is slightly faster in my experience (and in my tests).

For only a single column, correlated subqueries in the recursive term of the rCTE should be a bit faster. This requires to exclude rows resulting in NULL for "labelDate". See:

• Optimize GROUP BY query to retrieve latest record per user

Asides

Unquoted, legal, lower case identifiers make your life easier.
Order columns in your table definition favorably to save some disk space:

• Calculating and saving space in PostgreSQL

Answer 3

From the postgresql documentation:

CLUSTER can re-sort the table using either an index scan on the specified index, or (if the index is a b-tree) a sequential scan followed by sorting. It will attempt to choose the method that will be faster, based on planner cost parameters and available statistical information.

Your index on labelDate is a btree..

Reference:

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/static/sql-cluster.html